How to select a good dog

Many things that must be considered and in selecting the right type of dog to become friends and our family members. Here are some things that should be considered in selecting the type of dog.

Size Dogs

Dog size is divided into several sections:
Toy : body weight between 1 kg - 10 kg.
Medium : weight between 10 kg - 25 kg.
Large : body weight between 25 kg - 50 kg.
Giant : body weight between 50 kg -75 kg.

The size of this body weight was measured at the time a dog reaches the end point of growth or at the time he was grown.

Many people are enamored with the dog because it gives a big impression Macho or stout but some start much later confusion because the house is too small for the dog. Note the size of your home in choosing the type of dog that will be maintained. If your home and perkarangan widespread the problem is not choosing a large dog because a dog needs enough space to move. But if you do not have a broad but still want to memeliharaanjing type of big, you have to sacrifice time and energy to take your big dog walking outside the house.

Other factors to be considered is the cost of maintenance costs such as meals and cost of care. The large size dog, the more the amount of dog food that dikonsumsinya.

Dog Hair

Type of dog fur varies but we will study here is a long fur and short fur. Sometimes we are happy to see the dog as long plumose more beautiful and luxurious. If you have enough time to spare, there is no one you choose a dog that long plumose. Dogs that long plumose extra attention should be given on bulunya. You must have the time to comb and clean bulunya.

Whatever type of dog fur, long or short that each has advantages and disadvantages of each. As an example, a dog and Golden Retriever dog Labrador Retriever that has the nature, form and size that is almost the same but have different types of wool. Golden Retriever's benefits have a more glamor in Labrador with the appeal because bulunya but have a long lack of care that is a more complex feather compared with Labrador. Labrador is seen more simple but very easy to care bulunya because bulunya short. Furry dog that will be long at the time of making the Indian feather.

The nature and function

Each type of dog and nature have a different function. Based on its dogs were divided into several parts.

Toy

Type of dog toy are usually sized under 10 kg, its function only as a friend to play it. Even if used as a guard dog, just a dog alarm only. For example: Pomeranian, Chihuahua, Pug, Miniature pincher, Poodle, and others.

Companion Dog

Usually referred to as the Family Dog, a dog who enter this category up to medium-sized. Companion dog not a dog or a ferocious look sinister, but must be seen and are kalem. Dogs of this type of bias is generally not used as guard dogs because it is too good and are easy with strangers, including the skeleton. For example: Golden Retriever, Labrador Retriever, American Cocker Spaniel, Collie, and others.

Guard Dog

Guard Dog or watchdog bertampang usually sinister or fierce. Dogs of this type is to be used to guard our property. Dogs have a protecting nature. When trained properly, dogs can be useful for us, but if we do not mendidiknya well with the dog this will hurt even us. For example: German Shepherd Dogs (AGJ), Rottweiler, Dobermann, American Pit Bull Terrier (APBT), Boxer, and others.

The factors above can be made as consideration for choosing the right dog for your family. You also do not have to think long to see the impetuous Anakan dog funny because you can not keep well. Do not leave, that you have a dog like you finally dispose of because you are not able to maintain

Pet groomers for beginners Guide

Pet groomers, more than any other group of pet health care professionals, fill a very unique niche in enhancing pet health. Your profession requires certain attributes not required by veterinarians, trainers, breeders, pet shop owners, kennel operators and pet food retail salespeople. To be a successful pet grooming professional you must have hands on contact with your subjects, you will be required to carefully observe each subject while grooming, and you will be doing this while patiently controlling the pet. Your job requires you to spend time with the pet in such a manner that you will be able to judge the pet' s physical and mental attitude. No other pet health care professional is required to fulfill all of these conditions in the execution of their job... the professional groomer holds a unique and vital position in pet health care delivery.

Of course there's a huge responsibility you must bear not only to be the best groomer you can be but also to be a healthcare advocate on behalf of the pets with whom you work. With your hands-on contact and acute observational skills you should be prepared to relate to a veterinarian or to the pet's owner any deviations from normal that you detect in the pet.

Every day in my small animal practice the groomer (she happened to be an independent contractor, not my employee, so I refrained from calling her "my" groomer!) would call me in to the grooming room to point out something on the pet that needed attention. Often she had discovered some subtle health problem that had evolved since the last time I saw the pet. In addition, because many veterinarians are pressed for time due to a busy schedule, their observation of the pet may be hurried. The average office call lasts about twelve minutes. So here's where the groomer really has an advantage because you are forced to concentrate on this one subject while you pick at it, scrub it, pluck it and shave it with that old faithful clippers that sounds like a lawn-mower... then you blast a tornado of warm air over it until it's dry so you can then scissor, shape and brush it and then confine it and hope it doesn't urinate in the cage and soil itself before the owner shows up three hours late! Did I forget the bows?

If you are fortunate to be working in an animal hospital, you and the attending veterinarian should have open and cooperative dialogue regarding the pets in your care. If your grooming business is in a kennel, home or pet boutique and there is no veterinarian close at hand, there are a few things you should consider.

First of all set aside some time where you and a nearby veterinarian can spend a moment discussing your grooming philosophy. Explore the fact that sometime in the future you will be needing the veterinarian's advice and may even need to rush in with a grooming subject that needs immediate care. The time to set up this mutual cooperative relationship is before a crisis occurs! On your customers' chart you will always have recorded the pet's usual veterinarian, however that veterinarian may not always be available, so you need a backup you can be comfortable calling when the need arises.

I'll try to give you some hints and clues about what to look for when assessing the pet's state of physical and emotional health. Hopefully you will be able to fine tune your already good sense of observation. Do not be reluctant or shy about relaying your thoughts or observations about the pet's health to the owner or veterinarian. You might not know it but I believe the pet will thank you somehow! Oh, yes... so should the owner and veterinarian!

If you haven't made it a habit to keep very good records, you better start now. Taking a few minutes to write down what you have seen and done with every pet, every time you groom it, will be the best time investment you can make; it simply makes your job easier and your clients will be impressed with your organized and professional manner. Good record keeping is absolutely vital.

I'll explain a few terms and health conditions you most certainly will encounter in your grooming career. You must be thoroughly familiar with what is normal before you can discern the deviations that would be termed abnormal. Dog shows and grooming expos are a great source for observation of what is generally considered normal, plus your everyday interaction with your own or friends' pets will provide a good baseline for your concept of normal physical structure and movement.

Skin and Coat

Let's define "healthy skin and coat" so we're clear about what is considered "normal." Don't confuse "normal" with "common." Every day in my practice I see pets that have unhealthy skin and coats (usually due to improper nutrition) - so less than optimum is actually quite "common." I've often thought a normal skin/coat condition was actually quite uncommon! Using your senses of touch, vision and smell you will begin to recognize the character of a "normal" or "healthy" skin and coat.

TOUCH

Normal touch: There will be a soft texture to the hairs and even in wiry coats such as in Airedales the character of the coat should be pliable and smooth.

Abnormal touch: The coat will be made up of dry, coarse, brittle hairs, some broken off, some very fine. The coat may be sparse and thinning or short and underdeveloped.

APPEARANCE

Normal appearing skin/coat: The skin will have a clean look to it and be free of scales, scabs and crusts. The coat should appear full, almost lustrous and have a soft look to it.

Abnormal appearing skin/coat: The skin will appear thin, dry and scaly or greasy. The coat will appear dull, lusterless or even dusty. It will have no "shine" to it and will have a harsh appearance.

SMELL

Normal skin/coat: A healthy skin and coat won't have any smell to it. And even when dirty, will smell like whatever is making it dirty. Abnormal skin/coat: An unhealthy skin and coat will have a rancid, oily odor; the odor is caused by superficial skin bacteria and their waste products breaking down the oils on the skin.

All skin surfaces have colonies of bacteria present. But an unhealthy skin surface harbors too many of the wrong kinds of bacteria. That is why many veterinarians recommend weekly shampoos with benzoyl peroxide for some dogs with chronic bacterial dermatitis. These types of shampoos keep bacterial numbers to a minimum.

The single most important determining factor in the healthy skin/coat equation is proper NUTRITION. No matter what else may be adversely affecting the skin/coat, such as allergies, infections, harsh environment, or parasites, the problem will be worse in a dog that is only barely meeting its nutrient requirements. And skin/coat problems are always less severe and occur less often in well nourished pets. Dogs and cats are primarily meat eaters. They will act, feel and look their best if fed a diet whose first ingredient listed on the pet food label is MEAT, POULTRY or FISH. Diets that are based on grains such as corn will not properly nourish dogs and cats.

Always recommend to the customer that they seek a veterinarian's advice if you suspect a pet may have a nutritional deficiency. And here's a hint... emphasize the words "may have". If you don't, I guaranteed you that the veterinarian will hear your client say "The groomer says that Fritzie has a nutritional deficiency" and you will erroneously be accused of making a medical diagnosis. So be sure the customer understands that you are making an observation and merely suggesting that the owners may be helping their pet by having a veterinarian check something out.

The entire field of pet health nutrition is now only beginning to recognize the value and function of meat-based (poultry, beef, lamb, fish) diets. Many well known brands of dog and cat foods that have been around for years and whose foundation (the first listed ingredient on the label) is a grain such as corn, wheat, barley, or rice simply do not provide the health enhancing nutrients that meat-based diets provide. As a professional groomer your suggestions to the pet owner carries remarkable credibility. It is your obligation on behalf of the pet and as a pet health care professional to become familiar with high quality diets. Most veterinarians have had only superficial training in pet nutrition and often that training has been provided by representatives of various dog food companies.

Always note on your client chart what the pet is being fed. If you detect a less than optimum skin/coat condition, be sure to discuss with the owner your concerns about the pets nutritional status. You might even suggest some nutrition counseling with a local veterinarian who has a genuine interest in nutrition. Remember... if a pet doesn't look good, it probably doesn't feel good.

EARS

By far the most common medical ailment I see in my practice is "OTITIS. " The root causes of ear trouble can run the full spectrum... from contact irritants such as occurs from soaps, pollens, grass or carpeting, to infectious organisms such as yeast and bacteria, to parasites such as fleas and ear mites. Veterinarians further generally classify OTITIS as externa, media, interna depending upon which areas of the entire auditory system is affected. As a groomer you will see many cases of OTITIS externa and these will generally be either allergic otitis externa or microbial otitis externa.

Allergic otitis displays itself as reddened, inflamed ear tissues that feel warm (or even hot!) to the touch. These cases tend to be dry, and have only a mild odor with minimal build-up of wax, pus and debris. An allergic ear really looks red and inflamed.

On the other hand (or other ear!) infected ears - microbial otitis - because of the damage the bacteria and yeast are doing to the tissues of the ear, the ear canal and other affected tissues become moist and purulent (the medical term for pus.) That ear canal is a perfect incubator for microorganisms... dark, most, warm with a good supply of nutrients! If that ear canal sounds wet upon manipulation and has a foul odor, there is certain to be an infection present.

Always check with a veterinarian before plucking hairs from any ear structures that seem to be infected. Sometimes the ear problem requires sedation and cleaning. And chronic, severe cases of infected and scarred ear tissues often respond well to surgery to open up the canal for better exposure to the drying effects of air. Be sure to mention to the pet's owner to have the ears checked if you suspect Otitis is present. The longer it goes on, whether it's allergic or infectious, the more scar tissue forms and the more difficult it is to cure. And simple ear cleaners that work well to clean the waxy or oily ears won't touch an infection and may further irritate allergic ears.

Shaving the hairs close with a #40 blade can be of help (keep that blade flat to the skin surface - not at an angle!). If the ear structures have a buildup of crusts or debris, eliminating the hair prevents the hairs from trapping the exudate and allows better contact of medications and facilitates the drying effects of air. So, in general, removing hair from infected tissues can be helpful. (Don't forget to disinfect the instruments frequently!)

NAILS

The nails are a good indicator of the pet's general state of health. Crooked, dry, cracking or pitted nails are a tip-off that the dog may have a fungal infection or be poorly nourished.

If you see abnormal nails, be especially watchful for areas on the skin where there may be circular, dry patches of hair loss. The dog or cat may have "ringworm", a fungal infection (called dermatophyte), that requires oral medication to correct. I am always concerned about any pet's diet, environment, or immune system whenever I diagnose a fungal skin infection, especially when the nails are also involved. What you see externally may indicate an internal abnormality in the pet. And treatment entails discovering why the nails are diseased in the first place. Treating diseased toenails may extend over a few months.

And it is very important to notify a veterinarian if there is any pus or bleeding from the nail bed. Be cautions yourself NEVER to get any bloody, purulent (pus) discharge into contact with a cut or scratch on yourself. A serious fungal disease of dogs and humans called Blastomycosis often will show up first a draining lesion at the toenail bed.

We've all cut nails too short. Of the thousands I've made bleed I've never seen one get infected. I prefer the Quick Stop powder as a coagulant, but there are other quite satisfactory methods to arrest the bleeding. A healthy dog's toenail should clot on its own within 5-6 minutes, any longer than that warrants laboratory tests and veterinary analysis for clotting factors!

If you see large or overgrown nails (Bassets, Dobes and some small breeds like Pekes come to mind) that simple trimming won't provide proper nail set, have a veterinarian take a look. The dog may require a "deep pedicure" under anesthesia to cut the toe nails back close.

Broken nails need to be trimmed back to the fracture site, then a coagulant applied. Pulled nails, ones that have been torn from the nail bed and all you see is a bloody circle at the end of the toe, do require a veterinary check. Antibiotics may be indicated. I've had to amputate many toes where a chronic deep infection invaded the toe bones and simply would not heal... all because of a pulled nail.

EYES

As a groomer you will have numerous opportunities to help your subjects by pointing out abnormalities to the owner or veterinarian. Probably the most common disorder you'll see will be Epiphora - excessive tearing. There are so many causes for the tears draining down the face that chapters could be written on just this topic! Here's where your penlight comes in handy. Darken the room and shine the light along the edges of the eyelids and look for tiny eyelashes growing along the edges of the lids. If these tiny lashes are contacting the eye, there is the potential for serious corneal damage. Report this condition, called distichiasis, to the owner or veterinarian. Often the tiny openings, one in the inside corner of all four lids, will be under-developed or plugged up. Tear duct obstruction sometimes can be alleviated by using small amounts of an antibiotic called tetracycline. A veterinarian can evaluate tear duct flow under anesthesia.

Numerous other disorders such as entropion (rolling inward of the lid), follicular conjunctivitis, facial folds, or long hairs contacting the eye can predispose the dog to excessive or misdirected tears resulting in chronic wetness and a mucoid, crusty build-up on the face.

Clipping the hairs short if possible will make clean up or application of medication easier. Remember, though, to advise the owner to have the underlying cause determined by a veterinarian. And please help to dispel the myth that dogs with lots of hair falling in front of the eyes, such as OESD's and Shih Tzus, must have their eyes shaded or excessive light will make them go blind. They most certainly can see better, and the light does not cause blindness, if all that hair is kept away from their eyes.

Inform the owner if you see cataracts in the eyes. Darken the room and shine your penlight directly into the front of the eye and look over the top of the light (as if you were aiming the light into the eye.) Deep in the very center of the eye the light passes through the pupil (the circular opening made by the colored part of the eye called the iris.) Just behind the pupil is the lens and the light should pass unreflected through the lens to the back part of the eye called the retina. If you see a milky or hazy object or reflective particles where the lens is, the dog may have some vision problems and you should let the owner know.

Be very careful about scratches on the corneas. To see what can happen when the corneal surface is abraded. Pekes, Boston Terriers and other breeds whose eyes seem to be bulging out of the socket are especially prone to receiving abrasions on the cornea. Tearing and squinting are the most likely signals of corneal abrasions, and sometimes with the penlight directed at an angle, the abrasion or ulcer on the cornea is visible. Veterinarians will use a stain to highlight these areas.

Corneal lesions may result from soap or other irritants contacting the eye; plus, the dog's attempts to wipe the eye with its paws can cause further harm. Applying muzzles, wire brushes, using clippers too close to the eye, rubbing against the grooming noose or sprays such as clipper lubes can all be sources of corneal irritation and abrasion.

It's a good idea to have a sterile eye wash solution at the ready if you suspect the dog's eye was subject to any irritant. Gentle flushing with sterile ocular wash such as Sterile Saline can help to rid the eye of irritants, but if you suspect a scratch or abrasion is present... it's time to see the veterinarian.

CUTS
Oh, brother! Now you've really done it! While cutting that tiny mat behind the ear or trying an awkward underneath, backhand, reverse scissor cut you slice a neat little crescent shaped incision into the pet's skin.

If you're lucky, it won't bleed. But you should try to close the cut temporarily with surgical glue called Nexaban until the veterinarian can examine it. Your veterinarian can order Nexaban for you. Put a drop into the wound, pinch the skin back to its normal position and hold it for three seconds.

The veterinarian may decide a few stitches are necessary - but maybe the glue will be all that's required. Be sure to call the owner to explain what happened right away. Don't wait until they come for pick-up to inform them. You may have just performed a grooming at no charge if you want to keep them as clients. It's not a bad idea to call your veterinarian for advice about using the glue or stopping any bleeding - the owner will appreciate the fact that you called. You should offer to pay for the veterinary bill, too, if you ever want to see these clients again. If there seems to be a significant bleeding problem, and even tiny cuts along the pinna margins are notorious for splashing crimson all over - direct pressure to the cut will halt the flow as long as you keep up the pressure.

CLIPPER BURNS/CLIPPER ABRASIONS
Every successful and competent groomer on occasion has had an experience where a few days after grooming a dog it develops an extremely itchy, moist, scabby area that drives the dog and the owner crazy. These skin sores are often called Hot spots (also called Moist Eczema) result from trauma to the skin surface either from a clipper blade scratch or from contact with a hot blade. A true "clipper burn" is a skin lesion that can occur due to a hot clipper blade contacting the skin. A Clipper Abrasion is an actual scratching of the skin surface from holding the blade at the wrong angle to the skin or from using the wrong sized blade. The most common site for this problem is along the cheekbone and on the cheek. Hot Spots (moist eczema) requires repeated cleansing and often oral antibiotics to hasten its resolution. Be especially careful with the clippers around the cheeks, it's just possible the sharp points on the blades are creating tiny scratches that become irritated or infected, then the dog scratches the area compounding the skin trauma and shortly after that you get a call from the owner! This condition should be checked by a veterinarian. And don't be discouraged if you loose a client because of "clipper burns"... whoever they take the dog to next has had their share too! You won't know when it happens, but you'll find out a few days later. As in any worthwhile endeavor, the fruits of your hard work will be recognized by customer satisfaction. You will have lots of repeat customers! And they will tell their friends. Your success will result in no small measure from your professional and knowledgeable assessment of the mental and physical and nutritional well-being of the pets entrusted to your care. Be observant, take good notes, and don't be reluctant to advise your clients about proper pet health care. Groomers are a vital link in the pet health care chain.
NOTE: Hot spots can result from inadequate rinsing, too. If any shampoo is not rinsed away completely and remains in contact with the skin for an extended period of time, a local skin infection can result. The solution: Rinse thoroughly and dry the entire skin and coat before sending the dog home!

MOUTH
It is a good idea to open the dog's mouth and check the teeth and gums. Be sure to pull the corner of the mouth back in order to visualize the molars. It's quite easy to detect oral problems by visualizing bleeding gums, chunks of brown plaque on the teeth or loose teeth and an odor that will knock you over! You'll be shocked at how many dogs have severe gum inflammation and infection (called gingivitis), loose teeth or even occasionally have cavities. A healthy oral cavity is vital to the pet's optimum health. You will be doing the pet and owner a great service by suggesting a veterinary check-up for dentistry. You'd be surprised how many veterinarians overlook a thorough oral exam. Dental hygiene is a very important topic and unfortunately it is often overlooked by veterinarians and groomers.

PERSONAL SAFETY

Photos of cat bite and scratch injuries... CLICK TO ENLARGE
Cat bite and scratch injuries	Cat claws	Cat bite... infected finger	Infected finger at the time of surgery

Dogs and cats are potentially dangerous. You must watch closely how the dog and owner interact and heed any warnings the owner may give you about such things as "Don't touch her near her hips or she'll bite" or "He doesn't like quick movements near his ears." Of course you will need to work on and around those areas but the owner knows something about that animal's protected areas, and you need to pick up on that hint, so pay attention. Have bite proof gloves handy. Also a large fishing net can be very helpful in restraining a small dog or cat that has "freaked out" in a panic of anxiety or aggression. The net is safe for the pet and you will be able to regain control of the fearful subject. A number of muzzle styles and sizes are available and there will be times when you will need one.

Here's a helpful hint: If you have a pet that you feel is dangerous to you or anyone around your facility, you DO NOT have to groom it. If in your judgment you do not feel safe working with the pet, call the owner and relate in non critical terms the simple fact that you cannot risk injury and loose time from work if their pet hurts you. You might also state that despite attempts on your part, their pet will not tolerate the things you need to do in order to have a satisfied customer and a good job of grooming done. You will get one of two reactions:
1.) "Well, I really didn't think you would be able to handle him. You are the fourth groomer who has had trouble. I'm sorry; I'll come and get him."
2.) "What are you talkin' about? You must have scared him; he's never acted like that at any other groomers'. You aren't going to charge me anything, are you?"

Be very certain that you are aware of the State laws regarding use of insecticides and their disposal. Be careful about slipping on wet floors, about straining your back, about flat feet, about hairs penetrating under your fingernails, electrical shocks, hearing protection, eye trauma, fires, floods and hurricanes! Gosh, maybe working in a Library would be a good career choice.

PET SAFETY

Never... let me repeat, NEVER let a pet get out of your control. If you want to create an event that will burn into your memory for a lifetime just allow a pet to roam freely about your grooming facility. Eventually someone will open the wrong doors at the wrong time and the pet will disappear out the door and across the interstate. What will you tell the owner? It will not be somebody else's fault. It will be your fault. Continuous, gentle and secure restraint should be on your mind all the time. Be exceedingly careful about any pet who is on the grooming table; this should be considered a hazardous area for the pet. The grooming arm should have a loop with a quick release in case you need to disconnect the pet quickly. Never leave a room where a pet is unattended on the grooming table; make it a firm habit to place the pet into a cage every single time you have to leave the grooming room.And when placing the pet into a cage be sure of your grip. Dogs and cats often anticipate your placement and jump at the last second. This can lead to an uncertain landing. (I worked at an animal hospital where a dog broke his leg in one such unlikely landing!) A sure grip will prevent an unexpected escape from your control.Take precautions whenever you are clipping, scissoring or brushing near the eyes. I've seen some very scary near-misses with those wire brushes whizzing past the open eyes of pets. Cutting mats from a cat or dog takes patience and you will be very surprised when you slice a crescent shape gash into a pet just below that tight fur mat. Eye, ear, skin and secure restraint precautions should always be priorities.

DRYERS

Other than being very noisy, which you can't help, be certain that safety procedures are noted regarding temperature control and electrical connections. And be certain that the pet is thoroughly dry before it goes home. Just a little soapy moisture on the skin can lead to moist eczema. Watch hot spot. the pet for any signs of discomfort or anxiety and don't leave the dryer on any longer than needed.

Leptospirosis in dogs

Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that affects many species of animals as well as human beings. Leptospirosis occurs throughout the World. The organism belongs to a phylum called spirochaetes, distinctive bacteria with long, helically coiled bodies. They can be recognized by the presence of flagella or ribbons running lengthwise down the cell and called axial filaments. These filament causes a twisting, spiral motion as the organism moves about. Most spirochaetes are free-living without oxygen (anaerobic) with only the Leptospira, the Borrelia of Lyme disease and the Treponema of human syphilis causing disease.

There are approximately 230 serologically distinct forms of the genus and species, Leptospira interrogans, which are called serovars. Nine serovars are known to cause disease in dogs. They are Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae, L. canicola, L. grippotyphosa, L. pomona, L. bratislava, L. automnalis, L. bataviae, L. hardjo, and L. grippotyphosa . The first four serovars are most commonly isolated from dogs. In North America, the disease is perpetuated in domestic cows, horses and pigs and in wildlife that include mice, rats, raccoons, opossums, fox, skunk, deer, and woodchucks.

Transmission
Dogs become infected with leptospira through contact with the urine of infected animals. Stagnant water, contaminated with urine is a common source of infection as are rats. The organism can also be transmitted through mating, bites, and the consumption of infected carcasses. There are documented cases where transmission from parent to offspring occurred through the womb. Transmission is greatest during periods of wet weather.

Dynamics Of The Disease
Leptospira gain entrance to the bloodstream through mucous membranes or wounds. It takes 4-12 days for symptoms to occur. Once in the blood stream the organisms spread rapidly to body organs that include the liver, spleen and kidneys. The nervous system, genital tract and eyes also harbor leptospira. As the dog fights the disease by producing antibody, the organisms are cleared from most of the organs, remaining only in the kidneys from which they are shed for weeks or months in the urine. When death occurs it is often due to destruction of the liver (hepatitis). Liver necrosis is most common in dogs less than six months old. L. pomona and L. icterohaemorrhagiae have a predilection for the liver while L. canicola and L. grippotyphosa often spare the liver but colonize the kidneys. When people become infected , one third obtain the infection through contact with carrier dogs while another third contract the disease from contact with rats.

Symptoms of Leptospirosis
The first signs of leptospirosis are fever and depression. Dogs developing this disease are cold and shiver. They appear to ache and be tender all over. Soon they develop fevers of 103-104 degrees Fahrenheit. Joint pain and excessive bleeding sometimes occur. The dogs stop eating and drinking and often drool and vomit. Through vomission they loose fluids and become dehydrated. Dogs with fulminating infections soon become subnormal in temperature (hypothermia) and may die before signs of kidney and liver failure develop. In other dogs, infection of the kidneys leads to blood tinged reddish urine, oral ulcers and uremia. Inflammation of the covering of the brain (meningitis), inflammation of the iris and ciliary body of the eye (uveitis) and abortion have all been reported.

Dogs with more moderate cases of the disease soon drink water excessively. Their tenderness and reluctance to move is due to painful swollen kidneys. In those with liver involvement, the membranes that line the mouth and surround the eyes become yellowish (icteric, jaundiced). The majority of these dogs go on to recover in two or three weeks but a few permanently loose kidney function and die slowly from waste product overload (uremia). The dogs that recover can shed leptospira in their urine for months or even years. In these dogs the organism continues to live in the kidneys and reproductive organs.

Blood samples taken from dogs well into the disease process often show an elevated white blood cell count and a deficiency in thrombocytes which causes bleeding. Blood serum chemistry values often show kidney damage (elevated BUN and creatinine) and liver damage (elevated AST, ALT, Alkaline Phosphatase and bilirubin). Urine obtained from infected dogs may contain blood, protein and sugar reflecting damage to the kidney’s tubular filtering apparatus.

Diagnosis
Leptospirosis is diagnosed through test of the blood serum that measure the level of antibody present as well as the identity the strain of leptospira present. Fluorescent antibody tests or polymerase chain reaction tests identify the serovar responsible for causing the dog’s disease. The microscopic agglutination test or MAT is the most common test for antibody. It takes at least ten days for the dog to begin to produce antibody against the disease and several tests may be necessary to confirm the diagnosis. While a serum titer of 1:800 or more makes the disease highly likely a second test should be performed showing a rising titer in order to confirm that the infection is active. Recent leptospirosis vaccination can cloud the diagnosis. Occasionally, the bacteria can be isolated from the urine of infected dogs. A procedure called darkfield microscopy can identify leptospira in the urine sample. When the disease spreads to the dog’s owner the initial signs are fever, headaches, rash, myalgia and malaise.

Treatment
The first line of treatment of leptospirosis is to provide the dog with a suitable antibiotic. The penicillin class of antibiotics works well against leptospirosis (Penicillin G procaine 10,000-20,000 units/lb injected intramuscularly twice a day). After the acute phase of leptospirosis has passed, the drug of choice to prevent carrier states is doxycycline (1.5-2.5mg/lb twice a day orally). The newer fluoroquinolone antibiotics such as enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin (2.5-10mg/lb/day) are also effective in treatment and elimination of carrier states. In addition to antibiotic therapy, medications are administered to stem vomiting and intravenous and subcutaneous fluids are give to correct dehydration. Dogs that die of the disease often do due to kidney failure. To prevent this, copious intravenous fluids help flush out the kidneys and prevent their destruction. When this is not sufficient and toxic waste products continue to build up in the dog’s body, hemodialysis has been effective in saving their lives.

Vaccination And Prevention
Limiting exposure to leptospira necessitates draining or fencing off sources of contaminated water. Vermin need to be eliminated from residential and rural areas. The best way to do this is to seal and protect all sources of feed that rodents and other vermin utilize.

The vaccines available for dogs are all killed extracts of leptospira. Most contain four of the nine serovars, L. canicola, L. icterohaemorrhagiae, L. grippotyphosa and L. pomona.
These bacterial extracts are usually marketed combined with living, attenuated (weakened) virus of canine distemper and parvovirus. When a vaccine reaction occurs in a dog, it is usually the leptospira extract or the antibiotic preservative that is the cause.

The leptospira portion of these vaccines produces six to eight months of immunity in dogs. Therefore, dogs kept in high exposure areas should be vaccinated twice yearly. I begin by vaccinating puppies at 9, 12 and 16 weeks of age. Leptospirosis vaccination is optional in house pets that are unlikely to be exposed to the disease.

No longer recommends that household urban dogs be vaccinated for leptospirosis. They give several reasons for this new recommendation:
1) The disease has become quite rare in the urban dog.
2) A more important reason is the frequency with which we see hives, facial swelling and even life-threatening vaccination reactions called anaphylaxis when we give vaccine “cocktails” that contain leptospirosis bacteria. The ”L” in DHLP, the most common vaccine cocktail, stands for leptospirosis. These reactions can be very mild or severe enough to cause death. These reactions do not occur on the initial vaccination but do increasingly on succeeding vaccinations.
3)Ththird reason is that the vaccines against leptospirosis are not that effective in preventing the disease and may actually facilitate carrier states.

Intestinal bacteria in dogs

After birth, gastrointestinal is colonised by various micro-organisms. The number of organisms increased from approximately 10²-10⁵ colony forming units (CFU) /ml in proximal small intestine to 10⁵-10⁹ CFU / mI in the distal small intestine, and then increased dramatically in the large intestine to approximately 10¹⁰-10¹¹CFU/ml in colon. This quantitative proximal-distal gradient is accompanied by complex qualitative changes from a predominantly aerobic flora in the small intestine to the large anaerobic flora in the large intestine. There is wide variation in the bacterial flora of normal individuals, and the concentration of May will be affected by various conditions including the environment, diet, scavenging and coprophagia. Increasing the number of bacteria in the small intestine carry an increase risk of damage the outcome. Whether this is a real clinical will depend on individual circumstances, including the composition of the diet that the bacteria can convert to potentially harmful metabolites. Nature of host response to the increased load may also be particularly important, and this May involve stimulation of immunoglobulin and mucus production, suppression of the potential damage to the cell mediated immune response, a compensatory production of structural and functional epithelial cell protein, and increased epithelial cell turnover. Threshold between the real normality and clinical disease in May therefore differ between individuals and is influenced by a complex balance between the microflora and the host. Clinical disease associated with bacterial overgrowth are common problems in dogs and occurs when this balance is tipped against the host.

Primary enteric bacterial pathogens can also cause acute clinical disease since they have the virulence factors that have Adverse effects on the gut. Adherence to the surface or invasion of the mucosa to facilitate long-term colonization by specific enteropathogens, predisposing to the carrier status or chronic disease, the result may depend on expression of virulence determine and host response.

Small intestinal bacterial

Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) is emerging as an important condition in dogs and emphasizes the potentially harmful effects of normal gut flora when the symbiotic relationship with the host is disrupted. This typically presents in young animals as chronic intermittent small bowel diarrhea, which in May accompanied by the loss of body weight or failure to gain weight. SIBO is ii a particular problem in many large breeds of dog, including German shepherd dogs Labradors and Golden retrievers, and colony dog appears to be particularly at risk.

The cause of bacterial

In most cases, it can not be identified, but a host of factors known to be a tendency for bacterial overgrowth, including disability gastric acid secretion, interference with normal motility or stasis, and disabled local immunity. The latter has been implicated in the German shepherd dog with 51,130, because this dog of a low serum and intestinal concentration of immunoglobulin A (Iga) that are important secreted protectant on the surface of the intestine. Other factors, stich as a potential stress or contaminated environment, diet and coprophagia, May also play a role and can contribute to the relatively high number of bacteria reported in kennelled dogs. Damaged as a result of overgrowth can involve competition by bacteria for calories and essential nutrients, production of harmful metabolites, and direct damage to the intestinal mucosa interfere with bowel function. Histological changes in gut biopsies from partial villus atrophy and lymphocyte / plasma cell infiltrate is present in 30% of cases, and in most cases, damage to the mucosa can not be seen by conventional light microscopy.

Diagnosis of bacterial

Diagnosis of SIBO in dogs is difficult and etirrently the assay of serum folate and cobalamin (B12) is the only practical screening test. An increased serum folate or reduced cobalamin concentration can provide indirect evidence of SIBO in dogs, and this has a reasonable specificity, although sensitivity is low. Increased sensitivity was achieved by hydrogen breath test following the oral administration of sugars. These sugars are metabolised by the bacteria present in the proximal small intestine in the SIBO resulted in the increase of breath hydrogen within 2 hours that do not occur in dogs with SIBO. Microbiological culture of duodenal juice obtained endoscopically or at laparotomy is needed to confirm the diagnosis of SIBO, and must show> 10⁵ colony formed units per ml. This is generally a mixture of flora, the most frequent isolates usually including enterococci and E. coli in dogs with aerobic overgrowth, and Clostridia in dogs with anaerobic overgrowth. Faecal culture does not help the diagnosis of overgrowth since the number and type of bacteria present in faeces are dominated by contributions from the large intestine.

Management of bacterial

Treatment with long-term oral broad spectrum antibiotics have proved to be effective, but there is a need for an alternative approach to the chronic management of dogs that relapse when antibiotics are withdrawn. Probiotics can theoretically help, but there are no objective studies that demonstrate efficacy as an approach. The management of SIBO with a low fat diet can help, because this can minimize the secretory diarrhea caused by bacterial metabolism of fatty acid and bile salt. Diet should also contain highly digestible carbohydrate and protein to minimize the availability of substrate for bacteria that will promote their life and can have other unpleasant consequences since intestinal gas is produced. A beneficial role for dietary fiber has not been documented, but it is clear that fiber-containing diets designed for weight reduction should not be used in these dogs that already have a compromised gut function as this could result in sufficient weight loss.

Pathogenic enteric Bacteria

Pathogenic stomach bacteria have colonization factors that encourage them live in the intestine and virulence factors that allow them to cause major intestinal disease. A number of potential enteropathogens were isolated from dogs, most especially Salmonella sp. and Canipylobacter sp. Their clinical importance is not yet fully defined, but clearly that some can cause clinical disease and may also represent zoonotic risk.

Colonization with stomach Pathogens

Pathogenic enteric bacteria are disseminated in the feces of infected animals and is most likely acquired by consuming contaminated food or water. Once access to the gastrointestinal tract has been achieved they then have to survive natural host defenses, including gastric acid, enzymes, mucus and local immunity. They also must compete with established non-pathogenic flora in order to ensure that they were standing on their predilection site. Colonization factors is therefore important component of pathogenicity and May include flagellae, chemotactins, mucinases, and fimbriae are hair-like projections that attach to specific receptors on the surface of the intestinal cells.

Virulence factors and clinical signs

Stomach bacteria cause clinical disease by many different mechanisms that may involve direct interaction with the intestinal mucosa and secretion of cytotoxins or enterotoxins. Various kinds of pathogenic E. coli, which is very popular in other species and emerge as important enteropathogens in dogs, illustrates the spectrum possible mechanisms. Invasive bacteria such as Salmonella sp., Campylobacter sp., Yersinia sp., Shigella sp. and enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) can invade the mucosa of the distal small intestine and colon causing acute enterocolitis. This is usually manifest as diarrhea accompanied by the passage of blood and mucus, and May lead to potentially fatal septicaemia if the organisms penetrate the intestinal barrier into the blood stream. Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) also interacts directly with the mucosa of the small intestine, but cause more subtle damage than this professional invaders, resulting in a loss of microvilli from absorpsi epithelial cells in the small intestine. This compromises absorpsi function and causes the osmotic small bowel diarrhea.

Cytotoxins is secreted by a number of enteric pathogens including enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), cytotoxic necrotising factor secreting E. coli and Clostridium perfringens. Cytotoxins is lethal to intestinal epithelial cells, causing bleeding and ulceration, potentially mimicking a severe enterocolitis caused by invasive bacteria. If EHEC to enter the circulation they can also damage endothelial cells and precipitate the haemolytic-uraemic syndrome. This mechanism has been responsible for the well-publicised human fatalities in Scotland and Japan following the food poisoning with the 0157 strain is usually derived from bovine products. In contrast to the cytotoxins, enterotoxins do not cause intestinal damage, but has a specific biochemical effect. They secreted eg by enterotoxigenic E. coli. (ETEC) and act as secretagogues resulted in a watery electrolyte-rich diarrhea. Many of these enteric pathogens cause acute clinical disease. However, properties such as adherence to the surface or invasion of the mucosa can promote long-term colonization by specific enteropathogens, predisposing to chronic disease or carrier status. The result may depend not only on the expression of virulence set but also on the host reaction, especially the ability to mount an effective immunological response.

Identification of stomach pathogens

Detection of enteropathogens in faecal samples initially involves conventional microbiological techniques, including biochemical characterisation and serotyping when appropriate. Identification of genes encoding virulence determine the new molecular approaches that proved invaluable, especially to distinguish between nonpathogenic E. coli. the main component normal intestinal flora, and different types of pathogenic E. coli of wolves in sheeps' clothing.

Main enteropathogens most frequently identified in dogs are Salmonella sp. and Campylobacter sp. This has been clearly associated with acute and chronic disease, usually causing haemorrhagic enterocolitis, but it can also be present in the clinical health service which potentially risks other animals and people. There is relatively little information on the prevalence of pathogenic E. coli. in dogs, although individual reports have isolated EPEC and ETEC from dogs with diarrhea. Our own studies have used gene probes to investigate E.coli. in faecal samples from dogs with diarrhea and clinical healthy dogs, all kept in the home environment. Results beginning shows that significantly more affected dogs were excreting pathogenic E. coli that hybridised with probes for EPEC and verocytotoxin. These findings support the possibility that pathogenic E. coli. can play a role in the pathogenesis of acute and chronic diarrhea in dogs. Additional preliminary studies of kennelled dogs suggest their May act as a carrier of pathogenic E. coli that can be transmitted and cause clinical disease in susceptible individuals. Vulnerability can involve environmental factors such as stress, but also an innate inability to mount an effective mucosal immune response to this organism.

Treatment and prevention of infection

Treatment acute cases, depending on the severity of clinical signs. Mild cases require little or no treatment, whereas parenteral antibiotics and intensive fluid therapy is indicated in severe cases, especially when there is evidence of septicaemia or endotoxaemia. Chronic cases can he difficult to manage and this may be due to a number of factors including poor support from the down host response, antibiotic resistance, the failure of antibiotics to reach invasive enteropathogens, or Reinfection from the environment.

There are obviously a force the argument for the administration of antibiotics in severe cases, but their use is controversial, especially in the clinically-healthy carriers. Options May be guided by antibiotic sensitivity testing, but generally antibiotic selection for clinical disease and to eliminate carrier status is enrofloxacin for salmonellosis and erythromycin for campylobacteriosis. Clearly, attention should also he given to the identification of sources of infection and the introduction of effective management procedures to prevent infection, especially if the dogs are housed together in the community. In an assessment 7oonotic potential it is relevant to consider that approximately 100,000 salmonella, but as few as 500 campylohacter organisms may be needed to cause clinical disease. The zoonotic implications of pathogenic E. coli infection in dogs is not well understood, but the infected animals should be considered a potential risk to relevant information to the contrary is available.

Canine parvovirus

Canine parvovirus (type 2) is a contagious virus mainly affecting dogs. The disease is highly infectious and is spread from dog to dog by direct or indirect contact with their feces. It can be especially severe in puppies that are not protected by maternal antibodies vaccination. It has two distinct presentations, a cardiac and intestinal form. The common signs of the intestinal form are severe vomiting and severe haemorrhagic (bloody) diarrhea. The cardiac form causes respiratory or cardiovascular failure in young puppies. Treatment often involves veterinary hospitalization. Vaccines can prevent this infection, but mortality can reach 91% in untreated cases.

There are two types of canine parvovirus called canine parvovirus type 1 CPV1) and canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV2). CPV2 causes the most serious disease and affects domesticated dogs and wild canids. There are variants of CPV2 called CPV-2a, CPV-2b and CPV-2c. Types 2a and 2b are distinct from the original CPV type 2 in terms of virulence and their ability to infect and cause disease in cats too. CPV-2c is a newly identified variant similar to 2b. The viral protein of 2c contains one amino acid different from CPV-2b but it is believed this could be significant. 2c strains have been identified in parts of Europe, the Americas and in Asia. Emergence of this strain has led to claims of ineffective vaccination of dogs, however studies have shown that the existing CPV vaccines still provide adequate levels of protection against CPV type 2c.

Prevention and decontamination

Prevention is the only way to ensure that a puppy or dog remains healthy since the disease is extremely virulent and contigious. The virus is extremely hardy and has been found to survive in feces and other organic material such as soil for over a year. It survives extremely cold and hot temperatures. The only household disinfectant that kills the virus is bleach.

Weaning puppies can be vaccinated with a modified live virus low passage high titer vaccine at 6 weeks of age, then every 3 to 4 weeks until 15 or 16 weeks. Puppies are initially protected through passive immunity derived from the mother. These maternal antibodies wear off before the puppy's immune system is mature enough to fight off CPV2 infection. Maternal antibodies also interfere with vaccination for CPV2 and can cause vaccine failure. Thus puppies are generally vaccinated in a series of shots, extending from the earliest time that the immunity derived from the mother wears off until after that passive immunity is definitely gone. Older puppies (16 weeks or older) are given 3 vaccinations 3 to 4 weeks apart. The duration of immunity of vaccines for CPV2 has been tested for all major vaccine manufacturers in the United States and has been found to be at least three years after the initial puppy series and a booster 1 year later.

A dog that successfully recovers from CPV2 sheds virus for a few days. Ongoing infection risk is primarily from faecal contamination of the environment due to the virus's ability to survive many months in the environment. Neighbours and family members with dogs should be notified of infected animals so that they can ensure that their dogs are vaccinated or tested for immunity. Vaccine will take up to 2 weeks to reach effective levels of immunity, the contagious individual should remain in quarantine until other animals are protected.

Treatment

Survival rate depends on how quickly CPV is diagnosed, the age of the animal and how aggressive the treatment is. Treatment for severe cases that are not caught early usually involves extensive hospitalization, due to the severe dehydration and damage to the intestines and bone marrow. A CPV test should be given as early as possible if CPV is suspected in order to begin early treatment and increase survival rate if the disease is found.

Treatment ideally consists of crystalloid IV fluids and/or colloids, antinausea injections (antiemetics) such as metoclopramide, dolasetron, ondansentron, and prochlorperazine, and antibiotic injections such as cefoxitin, metronidazole, timentin, or enrofloxacin. IV fluids are administered and antinausea and antibiotic injections are given subcutaneously, intramuscularly, or intravenously. The fluids are typically a mix of a sterile, balanced electrolyte solution, with an appropriate amount of B-complex vitamins, dextrose and potassium chloride. Analgesic medications such as buprenorphine are also used to counteract the intestinal discomfort caused by frequent bouts of diarrhea.

In addition to fluids given to achieve adequate rehydration, each time the puppy vomits or has diarrhea in a significant quantity, an equal amount of fluid is administered intravenously. The fluid requirements of a patient are determined by their body weight, weight changes over time, degree of dehydration at presentation and surface area. The hydration status is originally determined by assessment of clinical factors like tacky mucous membranes, concentration of the urine, sunken eyes, poor skin elasticity and bloodtests.

A blood plasmatransfusion from a donor dog that has already survived CPV is sometimes used to provide passive immunity to the sick dog. Some veterinarians keep these dogs on site, or have frozen serum available. There have been no controlled studies regarding this treatment. Additionally, fresh frozen plasma and human albumin transfusions can help replace the extreme protein losses seen in severe cases and help assure adequate tissue healing.

Once the dog can keep fluids down, the IV fluids are gradually discontinued, and very bland food slowly introduced. Oral antibiotics are administered for a number of days depending on the white blood cell count and the patient's ability to fight off secondary infection. A puppy with minimal symptoms can recover in 2 or 3 days if the IV fluids are begun as soon as symptoms are noticed and the CPV test confirms the diagnosis. However, even with hospitalization, there is no guarantee that the dog will be cured and survive.

Unconventional treatments
There is no specific antiviral treatment for CPV. However, there have been anecdotal reports of oseltamivir (Tamiflu) reducing disease severity and hospitalization time in canine parvovirus infection. The drug may limit the ability of the virus to invade the crypt cells of the small intestine and decrease gastrointestinal bacteria colonization and toxin production. There is also anecdotal evidence suggesting that colloidal silver is effective at treating CPV although currently regulatory authorities are discouraging its use due to potential toxicity issues and lack of demonstrated efficacy. Lastly, recombinant feline interferon omega (rFeIFN-ω), produced in silkworm larvae using a baculovirus vector, has been demonstrated by multiple studies to be an effective treatment.

Canine distemper

Canine distemper is a very serious viral disease affecting animals in the families Canidae, Mustelidae, Mephitidae, Hyaenidae, Airulidae, Procyonidae, Pinnipedae, some Viverridae and Ffelidae (though not domestic catsl; feline distemper or panleukopenia is a different virus exclusive to cats). It is most commonly associated with domestic animals such as dogs, although ferrets are also vaccinated for it. It is a single-stranded RNA virus of the family paramyxovirus, and thus a close relative of measles and rinderpest. Despite extensive vaccination in many regions, it remains a major disease of dogs.

Etymology

The origin of the word distemper is from the Middle Engglish distemperen, meaning to upset the balance of the humors, which is from the Old French destemprer, meaning to disturb, which is from the Vulgar Latin distemperare: Latin dis- and Latin temperare, meaning to not mix properly.

History

Although very similar to the measles virus, CDV seems to have appeared more recently, with the first case described in 1905 by French veterinarian Henri Carré. It was first thought to be related to the Plague and Typhus and resulted from several species of bacteria. It now affects all populations of domestic dog and some populations of wildlife. A vaccine was developed in 1950, yet due to limited use the virus remains prevalent in many populations. The domestic dog has largely been responsible for introducing canine distemper to previously unexposed wildlife and now causes a serious conservation threat to many species of carnivores and some species of marsupials. The virus contributed to the near-extinction of the black-footed ferret. It also may have played a considerable role in the extinction of the Tasmanian tiger and recurrently causes mortality among African Wild dogs. In 1991, the lion population in Serengeti, Tanzania experienced a 20% decline as a result of the disease. The disease has also mutated to form phocid distemper virus, which affects seals.

Infection

Puppies from three to six months old are particularly susceptible. Canine distemper virus (CDV) spreads through the aerosol droplets and through contact with infected bodily fluids including nasal and ocular secretions, feces, and urine 6-22 days after exposure. It can also be spread by food and water contaminated with these fluids. The time between infection and disease is 14 to 18 days, although there can be a fever from three to six days postinfection.

Canine distemper virus tends to orient its infection towards the lymphoid, epithelial, and nervous tissues. The virus initially replicates in the lymphatic tissue of the respiratory tract. The virus then enters the blood stream and infects the lymphatic tissue followed by respiratory, gastrointestinal, urogenital epithelium, the Central Nervous System, and optic nerves. Therefore, the typical pathologic features of canine distemper include lymphoid depletion (causing immunosuppression and leading to secondary infections), interstitial pneumonia, enchepalitis with demyelination, and hyperkeratosis of foot pads.

The mortality rate of the virus largely depends on the immune status of the infected dogs. Puppies experience the highest mortality rate where complications such as pneumonia and enchepalitis are more common. In older dogs that do develop distemper enchephalomyelitis, vestibular disease may present. Around 15% of canine inflammatory central nervous system diseases are a result of CDV.

Disease progression

The virus first appears in bronchial lymph nodes and tonsils two days after exposure. The virus then enters the blood stream on the second or third day. In older dogs that do develop distemper encephalomyetilis, vestibular disease may present. A first round of acute fever tends to begin around 3 to 8 days after infection which is often accompanied by a low white blood cell count, especially of lymphocytes as well as low platelet count. These signs may or may not be accompanied by anorexia, a runny nose, and discharge from the eye. This first round of fever typically recedes rapidly within 96 hours and then a second round of fever begins around the 11th or 12th day and lasts at least a week. Gastrointestinal and respiratory problems tend to follow which may become complicated with secondary bacterial infections. Inflammation of the brain and spinal cord otherwise known as encephalomyelitis is either associated with this, subsequently follows, or comes completely independent of these problems. A thickening of the footpads sometimes develops and vesicularpustular lesions on the abdomen usually develop. Neurological symptoms typically are found in the animals with thickened footpads from the virus. About half of sufferers experience meningoencephalomyelitis.

Gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms

Commonly observed signs are a runny nose, vomiting and diarrhea, dehydration, excessive salivation, coughing and/or labored breathing, loss of appetite, and weight loss. When and if the neurological symptoms develop, urination and defecation may become involuntary.

Neurological Symptoms

The symptoms within the central nervous system include a localized involuntary twitching of muscles or groups of muscles, seizures often distinguished by salivation and jaw movements commonly described as “chewing gum fits.” As the condition progresses, the seizures worsen and the dog may fall to its side, exhibiting grand mal convulsions. The animal may also show signs of sensitivity to light, incoordination, circling, increased sensitivity to sensory stimuli such as pain or touch, and deterioration of motor capabilities. Less commonly it may lead to blindness and paralysis. The length of the systemic disease may be as short as 10 days, or the start of neurological symptoms may not come until several weeks or months later.Those that survive usually have a small tic or twitch of varying levels of severity. With time this tic will usually diminish.

Diagnosis

The above symptoms, especially fever, respiratory signs, neurological signs, and thickened footpads found in unvaccinated dogs strongly indicate canine distemper. However, several febrile diseases match many of the symptoms of the disease and only recently has differing between canine hepatitis, herpes virus, parainfluenza and leptospirosis been possible. Thus, finding the virus by various methods in the dog's conjunctival cells gives a definitive diagnosis. In older dogs that develop distemper encephalomyetilis, diagnosis may be more difficult since many of these dogs have an adequate vaccination history.

Treatment and prevention

There is no specific treatment for canine distemper. The dog should be treated by a veterinarian, usually with antibiotics for secondary bacterial infections, intravenous fluids, and nutritional supplements. The prognosis is poor. In, vitro, ribavirin, an antiviral effective in treating measles and other viruses, has also shown effective against Canine distemper virus by means of error catastrophe. More research is now needed in vivo.

There exist a number of vaccines against canine distemper for dogs and domestic ferrets, which in many jurisdictions are mandatory for pets. The type of vaccine should be approved for the type of animal being inoculated, or else the animal could actually contract the disease from the vaccine. A dog who has eaten meat infected with Rinderpest can also sometimes receive temporary immunity. Infected animals should be quarantined from other dogs for several months due to the length of time the animal may shed the virus. The virus is destroyed in the environment by routine cleaning with disinfectants, detergents, or drying. It does not survive in the environment for more than a few hours at room temperature (20-25 °C), but can survive for a few weeks in shady environments at temperatures slightly above freezing. It, along with other labile viruses, can also persist longer in serum and tissue debris.

Canine distemper virus and Paget's disease

Paget's disease, a focal destructive disease of bone, has long suspected paramyxoviruses such as CDV, measles, respiratory syncytial virus, simian virus 5, and parainfluenza virus Type 3 as a culprit. Most studies, however, have pointed more directly at CDV and Measles. The virus detection technique in situ RT-PCR has shown CDV in 100% of Pagetic samples whereas other virus detection techniques have been less accurate

Bacterial infections in dogs

Brucellosis

Brucellosis, also called undulant fever, or Malta fever, is a highly contagious zoonosis caused by ingestion of unsterilized milk or meat from infected animals, or close contact with their secretions. Brucella spp. are small, gram negative, non-motile, non-spore-forming rods, which function as facultative intracellular parasites that cause chronic disease, which usually persists for life. Brucellosis has been recognized in both animals and humans since the 19th century.

History and nomenclature

The disease now called brucellosis, under the name "Mediterranean fever", first came to the attention of British medical officers in Malta during the CrimeanWar in the 1850s. The causal relationship between organism and disease was first established by Dr. David Bruce in 1887.

In 1897 Danish Veterinarian Bernhard Bang isolated Brucella abortus as the agent and the additional name Bang's disease was assigned. In modern usage "Bang's disease" is often shortened to just "bangs" when ranchers discuss the disease or vaccine.

Maltese doctor and archaeologist Sir Temi Zammit identified unpasteurized milk as the major source of the pathogen in 1905, and it has since become known as Malta Fever, or deni rqiq locally. In cattle this disease is also known as contagious abortion and infectious abortion.

The popular name "undulant fever" originates from the characteristic undulance (or "wave-like" nature) of the fever which rises and falls over weeks in untreated patients. In the 20th Century, this name, along with "brucellosis" (after Brucella, named for Dr Bruce), gradually replaced the 19th Century names "Mediterranean fever" and "Malta fever".

In 1989, Saudi Arabian neurologists discovered neurobrucellosis, a neurological involvement in brucellosis.

Brucellosis in animals

Species infecting domestic livestock are B. melitensis (goats and sheep), B. suis (pigs, see Swine brucellosis), B. abortus (cattle and bison), B. ovis (sheep), and B. canis (dogs). B. abortus also infects bison and elk in North America and B. suis is endemic in caribou. Brucella species have also been isolated from several marine mammal species (pinnipeds and cetaceans.)

The causative agent of brucellosis in dogs is Brucella canis. It is transmitted to other dogs through breeding and contact with aborted fetuses. Brucellosis can occur in humans that come in contact with infected aborted tissue or semen. The bacteria in dogs normally infect the genitals and lymphatic system, but can also spread to the eye, kidney, and intervertebral causing discospondylitis). Symptoms of brucellosis in dogs include abortion in female dogs and scrotal inflammation and orchitis (inflammation of the testicles) in males. Fever is uncommon. Infection of the eye can cause uvitis, and infection of the intervertebral disc can cause pain or weakness. Blood testing of the dogs prior to breeding can prevent the spread of this disease. It is treated with antibiotics as with humans, but it is difficult to cure.

Diagnosis of brucellosis relies on:

1. Demonstration of the agent: blood cultures in tryptose broth, bone marrow cultures. The growth of brucellae is extremely slow (they can take until 2 months to grow) and the culture poses a risk to laboratory personnel due to high infectivity of brucellae.
2. Demonstration of antibodies against the agent either with the classic Huddleson, Wright and/or Bengal Rose reactions, either with ELISA or the 2-mercaptoethanol assay for IgM antibodies associated with chronic disease
3. Histologic evidence of granulomatous hepatitis (hepatic biopsy)
4. Radiologic alterations in infected vertebrae : the Pedro Pons sign (preferential erosion of antero-superior corner of lumbar vertebrae) and marked osteophytosis are suspicious of brucellic spondylitis.

The disease's sequelae are highly variable and may include granulomatous hepatitis, arthritis, spondylitis, anemia, leukopenia,thrombocytopenia, meningitis, uvitis, neuritis and endocarditis.

Treatment and prevention

Antibiotic like tetracyclins, rifampicin and the aminoglykosides streptomycin and gentamycin are effective against Brucella bacteria. However, the use of more than one antibiotic is needed for several weeks, because the bacteria incubates within cells.

The gold standard treatment for adults is daily intramuscular injections of streptomycin 1 g for 14 days and oral doxycycline 100 mg twice daily for 45 days (concurrently). Gentamicin 5 mg/kg by intramuscular injection once daily for 7 days is an acceptable substitute when streptomycin is not available or difficult to obtain. Another widely used regimen is doxycycline plus rifampin twice daily for at least 6 weeks. This regimen has the advantage of oral administration. A triple therapy of doxycycline, together with rifampin and cotrimoxazole has been used successfully to treat neurobrucellosis. Doxycycline is able to cross the blood-brain barrier, but requires the addition of two other drugs to prevent relapse. Ciprofloxacin and co-trimoxazole therapy is associated with an unacceptably high rate of relapse. In brucellic endocarditis surgery is required for an optimal outcome. Even with optimal antibrucellic therapy relapses still occur in 5-10 percent of patients with Malta fever. The main way of preventing brucellosis is by using fastidious hygiene in producing raw milk products, or by pasteurization of all milk that is to be ingested by human beings, either in its pure form or as a derivate, such as cheeese. Experiments have shown that cotrimoxyzol and rifampin are both safe drugs to use in treatment of pregnant women who have Brucellosis.

Biological warfare

In 1954, B. suis became the first agent weaponized by the United States at its Pine Bluff Arsenall in Arkansas. Brucella species survive well in aerosols and resist drying. Brucella and all other remaining biological weapons in the U.S. arsenal were destroyed in 1971-72 when the U.S. offensive biological weapons (BW) program was discontinued.